# Posts on Accumulation

One of the main uses of the definite integral is summed up (pun intended) in the idea of accumulation. When you integrate a rate of change you get the (net) amount of change. This important idea is often treated very lightly, if at all, in textbooks.

Here are a series of past posts that use, explain, and illustrate that concept.

Accumulation – Need an Amount? The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus says that the integral of a rate of change (a derivative) is the net amount of change. This post shows how that works in practice.

AP Accumulation Questions and Good Question 7 – 2009 AB 3 the “Mighty Cable Company” show how accumulation is tested on the AP Calculus exams. The “Mighty Cable Company” question is a particularly good and difficult example.

The next two posts show how to use the concept of accumulation to analyze a function and its graph without reference to the derivative. The graphical idea of a Riemann sum rectangle moving across the interval of integration makes the features of function much more intuitive than the common approach. You will not find these ideas in textbooks. Nevertheless, a lesson on this idea may help your students.

Graphing with Accumulation 1 explains how to analyze the derivative to determine when a function is increasing or decreasing and finding the locations of extreme values. By thinking of the individual Rieman sum rectangles moving across the interval the features of the function are easy to see and easier to remember. Once understood, this method will help students with their graph analysis work.

Graphing with Accumulation 2 continues the idea of using accumulation to determine information about the concavity of a function.

# Unit 8 – Applications of Integration

I haven’t missed Unit 7! This unit seems to fit more logically after the opening unit on integration (Unit 6). The Course and Exam Description (CED) places Unit 7 Differential Equations before Unit 8 probably because the previous unit ended with techniques of antidifferentiation. My guess is that many teachers will teach Unit 8: Applications of Integration immediately after Unit 6 and before Unit 7: Differential Equations. The order is up to you. Unit 7 will post next Tuesday.

Unit 8 includes some standard problems solvable by integration (CED – 2019 p. 143 – 161). These topics account for about 10 – 15% of questions on the AB exam and 6 – 9% of the BC questions.

### Topics 8.1 – 8.3 Average Value and Accumulation

Topic 8.1 Finding the Average Value of a Function on an Interval Be sure to distinguish between average value of a function on an interval, average rate of change on an interval and the mean value

Topic 8.2 Connecting Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of Functions using Integrals Distinguish between displacement (= integral of velocity) and total distance traveled (= integral of speed)

Topic 8. 3 Using Accumulation Functions and Definite Integrals in Applied Contexts The integral of a rate of change equals the net amount of change. A really big idea and one that is tested on all the exams. So, if you are asked for an amount, look around for a rate to integrate.

### Topics 8.4 – 8.6 Area

Topic 8.4 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of x

Topic 8.5 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of y

Topic 8.6 Finding the Area Between Curves That Intersect at More Than Two Points Use two or more integrals or integrate the absolute value of the difference of the two functions. The latter is especially useful when do the computation of a graphing calculator.

### Topics 8.7 – 8.12 Volume

Topic 8.7 Volumes with Cross Sections: Squares and Rectangles

Topic 8.8 Volumes with Cross Sections: Triangles and Semicircles

Topic 8.9 Volume with Disk Method: Revolving around the x– or y-Axis Volumes of revolution are volumes with circular cross sections, so this continues the previous two topics.

Topic 8.10 Volume with Disk Method: Revolving Around Other Axes

Topic 8.11 Volume with Washer Method: Revolving Around the x– or y-Axis See Subtract the Hole from the Whole for an easier way to remember how to do these problems.

Topic 8.12 Volume with Washer Method: Revolving Around Other Axes. See Subtract the Hole from the Whole for an easier way to remember how to do these problems.

### Topic 8.13  Arc Length BC Only

Topic 8.13 The Arc Length of a Smooth, Planar Curve and Distance Traveled  BC ONLY

### Timing

The suggested time for Unit 8 is  19 – 20 classes for AB and 13 – 14 for BC of 40 – 50-minute class periods, this includes time for testing etc.

### Average Value and Accumulation

Most Triangles Are Obtuse!

Half-full or Half-empty

Accumulation: Need an Amount?

AP Accumulation Questions

Good Question 7 – 2009 AB 3 Accumulation, explain the meaning of an integral in context, unit analysis

Good Question 8 – or Not Unit analysis

Graphing with Accumulation 1 Seeing increasing and decreasing through integration

Graphing with Accumulation 2 Seeing concavity through integration

Adapting AB 1 / BC 1

### Area

Area Between Curves

Under is a Long Way Down  Avoiding “negative area.”

Math vs. the “Real World”  Improper integrals  BC Topic

Adapting 2021 AB 3 / BC 3

### Volume

Volumes of Solids with Regular Cross-sections

Volumes of Revolution

Why You Never Need Cylindrical Shells

Visualizing Solid Figures 1

Visualizing Solid Figures 3

Visualizing Solid Figures 4

Visualizing Solid Figures 5

Painting a Point

Adapting 2021 AB 3 / BC 3

### Other Applications of Integrals

Density Functions have been tested in the past, but are not specifically listed on the CED then or now.

Who’d a Thunk It? Some integration problems suitable for graphing calculator solution

Here are links to the full list of posts discussing the ten units in the 2019 Course and Exam Description.

2019 CED – Unit 1: Limits and Continuity

2019 CED – Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties.

2019 CED – Unit 3: Differentiation: Composite , Implicit, and Inverse Functions

2019 CED – Unit 4 Contextual Applications of the Derivative  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 5 Analytical Applications of Differentiation  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 6 Integration and Accumulation of Change

2019 – CED Unit 7 Differential Equations  Consider teaching after Unit 8

2019 – CED Unit 8 Applications of Integration   Consider teaching after Unit 6, before Unit 7

2019 – CED Unit 9 Parametric Equations, Polar Coordinates, and Vector-Values Functions

2019 CED Unit 10 Infinite Sequences and Series

# A Calculus Journey

I think that the path leading up to and including the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) is one of the most beautiful walks in mathematics. I have written several posts about it. You will soon be ready to travel that path with your students. (I always try to post on topics shortly before most teachers will get to them, so that you have some time to consider them and work the ideas you like into your lessons.)

Here is an annotated list of some of the posts to guide you on your journey.

Working Towards Riemann Sums gives the preliminary definitions you will need to define and discuss Riemann sums.

Riemann Sums defines the several Riemann sums often used in the calculus left-side sums, right-side sums, midpoint sums and the trapezoidal sums. “The Area Under a Curve” in the iPad app A Little Calculus is a great visual display of these and shows what happens as you use more subintervals.

The Definition of the Definite Integral gives the definition of the definite integral as the limit of any Riemann sum. As with any definition, there is nothing to prove or argue about here. The thing to remember is that the limit of the Riemann sum and the definite integral are the same thing. Behind any definite integral is a Riemann sum. The advantage of the definition’s integral notation is that it shows the interval involved which the Riemann sum does not. (Any Riemann sum may be represented by many definite integrals. See Good Question 11 – Riemann Reversed.)

Foreshadowing the FTC is an example of how a definite integral may be evaluated. It is long and has a lot of notation, so you may not want to use this.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is where the path leads. This post develops the FTC based on the other “big” idea of the calculus: the Mean Value Theorem. (I think the form here is preferable to the usual book notation that uses F(x) and its derivate f (x).)

Y the FTC? Tries to answer the question of what’s so important about the FTC. Example 1: The verbal interpretation of the FTC (the integral of a rate of change is the net amount of change over the interval.) will soon be used in many practical applications. While example 2 shows how the FTC allows one to evaluate a definite integral and, therefore the Riemann sum it represents, by evaluating a function whose derivative is the integrand (its antiderivative).

More About the FTC presents examples leading up to the other form of the FTC: the derivative of the integral is the integrand).

At this point you may go in the direction of learning how to find antiderivatives or working on applications. (See Integration itinerary.)

Bon Voyage!

# The Old Pump

A tank is being filled with water using a pump that is old and slows down as it runs. The table below gives the rate at which the pump pumps at ten-minute intervals. If the tank initially has 570 gallons of water in it, approximately how much water is in the tank after 90 minutes?

 Elapsed time (minutes) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Rate (gallons / minute) 42 40 38 35 35 32 28 20 19 10

And so, integration begins.

Ask your students to do this problem alone. When they are ready (after a few minutes) collect their opinions.  They will not all be the same (we hope, because there is more than one reasonable way to approximate the amount). Ask exactly how they got their answers and what assumptions they made. Be sure they always include units (gallons).  Here are some points to make in your discussion – points that we hope the kids will make and you can just “underline.”

1. Answers between 3140 and 3460 gallons are reasonable. Other answers in that range are acceptable. They will not use terms like “left-sum”, “right sum” and “trapezoidal rule” because they do not know them yet, but their explanations should amount to the same thing. An answer of 3300 gallons may be popular; it is the average of the other two, but students may not have gotten it by averaging 3140 and 3460.
2. Ask if they think their estimate is too large or too small and why they think that.
3. Ask what they need to know to give a better approximation – more and shorter time intervals.
4. Assumptions: If they added 570 + 42(10) + 40(10) + … +19(10) they are assuming that the pump ran at each rate for the full ten minutes and then suddenly dropped to the next. Others will assume the rate dropped immediately and ran at the slower rate for the 10 minutes. Some students will assume the rate dropped evenly over each 10-minute interval and use the average of the rates at the ends of each interval (570 + 41(10) + 39(10) + … 14.5(10) = 3300).
5. What is the 570 gallons in the problem for? Well, of course to foreshadow the idea of an initial condition. Hopefully, someone will forget to include it and you can point it out.
6. With luck someone will begin by graphing the data. If no one does, you should suggest it; (as always) to help them see what they are doing graphically. They are figuring the “areas” of rectangles whose height is the rate in gallons/minute and whose width is the time in minutes. Thus the “area” is not really an area but a volume (gal/min)(min) = gallons). In addition to unit analysis, graphing is important since you will soon be finding the area between the graph of a function and the x-axis in just this same manner.

Be sure to check the “Thoughts on ‘The Old Pump'” in the comments section below.

Revised from a post of November 30, 2012.

# Unit 6 – Integration and Accumulation of Change

Unit 6 develops the ideas behind integration, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, and Accumulation. (CED – 2019 p. 109 – 128). These topics account for about 17 – 20% of questions on the AB exam and 17 – 20% of the BC questions.

### Topics 6.1 – 6.4 Working up to the FTC

Topic 6.1 Exploring Accumulations of Change Accumulation is introduced through finding the area between the graph of a function and the x-axis. Positive and negative rates of change, unit analysis.

Topic 6.2 Approximating Areas with Riemann Sums Left-, right-, midpoint Riemann sums, and Trapezoidal sums, with uniform partitions are developed. Approximating with numerical methods, including use of technology are considered. Determining if the approximation is an over- or under-approximation.

Topic 6.3 Riemann Sums, Summation Notation and the Definite Integral. The definition integral is defined as the limit of a Riemann sum.

Topic 6.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) and Accumulation Functions Functions defined by definite integrals and the FTC.

Topic 6.5 Interpreting the Behavior of Accumulation Functions Involving Area Graphical, numerical, analytical, and verbal representations.

Topic 6.6 Applying Properties of Definite Integrals Using the properties to ease evaluation, evaluating by geometry and dealing with discontinuities.

Topic 6.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and Definite Integrals Antiderivatives. (Note: I suggest writing the FTC in this form $displaystyle int_{a}^{b}{{{f}'left( x right)}}dx=fleft( b right)-fleft( a right)$ because it seem more efficient then using upper case and lower case f.)

### Topics 6.5 – 6.14 Techniques of Integration

Topic 6.8 Finding Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integrals: Basic Rules and Notation. Using basic differentiation formulas to find antiderivatives. Some functions do not have closed-form antiderivatives. (Note: While textbooks often consider antidifferentiation before any work with integration, this seems like the place to introduce them. After learning the FTC students have a reason to find antiderivatives. See Integration Itinerary

Topic 6.9 Integration Using Substitution The u-substitution method. Changing the limits of integration when substituting.

Topic 6.10 Integrating Functions Using Long Division and Completing the Square

Topic 6.11 Integrating Using Integration by Parts (BC ONLY)

Topic 6.12 Integrating Using Linear Partial Fractions (BC ONLY)

Topic 6.13 Evaluating Improper Integrals (BC ONLY) Showing the work requires students to show correct limit notation.

Topic 6.14 Selecting Techniques for Antidifferentiation This means practice, practice, practice.

### Timing

The suggested time for Unit 6 is  18 – 20 classes for AB and 15 – 16 for BC of 40 – 50-minute class periods, this includes time for testing etc.

Previous posts on these topics include:

### Introducing Integration

Integration Itinerary

The Old Pump and Flying to Integrationland   Two introductory explorations

Working Towards Riemann Sums

Riemann Sums

The Definition of the Definite Integral

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Y the FTC?

Area Between Curves

Under is a Long Way Down

Properties of Integrals

Trapezoids – Ancient and Modern  On Trapezoid sums

Good Question 9 – Riemann Reversed   Given a Riemann sum can you find the Integral it converges to?  A common and difficult AP Exam problem

Adapting 2021 AB 1 / BC 1

Adapting 2021 AB 4 / BC 4

### Accumulation

Accumulation: Need an Amount?

Good Question 7 – 2009 AB 3

Good Question 8 – or Not?  Unit analysis

AP Exams Accumulation Question    A summary of accumulation ideas.

Graphing with Accumulation 1

Graphing with Accumulation 2

Accumulation and Differential Equations

Painting a Point

### Techniques of Integrations (AB and BC)

Antidifferentiation

Why Muss with the “+C”?

Good Question 13  More than one way to skin a cat.

### Integration by Parts – a BC Topic

Integration by Parts 1

Integration by Part 2

Parts and More Parts

Good Question 12 – Parts with a Constant?

Modified Tabular Integration

Improper Integrals and Proper Areas

Math vs the Real World Why $displaystyle int_{{-infty }}^{infty }{{frac{1}{x}}}dx$ does not converge.

Here are links to the full list of posts discussing the ten units in the 2019 Course and Exam Description.

2019 CED – Unit 1: Limits and Continuity

2019 CED – Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties.

2019 CED – Unit 3: Differentiation: Composite , Implicit, and Inverse Functions

2019 CED – Unit 4 Contextual Applications of the Derivative  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 5 Analytical Applications of Differentiation  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 6 Integration and Accumulation of Change

2019 – CED Unit 7 Differential Equations  Consider teaching after Unit 8

2019 – CED Unit 8 Applications of Integration   Consider teaching after Unit 6, before Unit 7

2019 – CED Unit 9 Parametric Equations, Polar Coordinates, and Vector-Values Functions

2019 CED Unit 10 Infinite Sequences and Series

# Adapting 2021 AB 4 / BC 4

Four of nine. Continuing the series started in the last three posts, this post looks at the AP Calculus 2021 exam question AB 4 / BC 4. The series considers each question with the aim of showing ways to use the question with your class as is, or by adapting and expanding it.  Like most of the AP Exam questions there is a lot more you can ask from the stem and a lot of other calculus you can discuss.

## 2021 AB 4 / BC 4

This is a Graph Analysis Problem (type 3) and contains topics from Units 2, 4, and 6 of the current Course and Exam Description. The things that are asked in these questions should be easy for the students, however each year the scores are low. This may be because some textbooks simply do not give students problems like this. Therefore, supplementing with graph analysis questions from past exams is necessary.

There are many additional questions that can be asked based on this stem and the stems of similar problems. Usually, the graph of the derivative is given, and students are asked questions about the graph of the function. See Reading the Derivative’s Graph.

Some years this question is given a context, such as the graph is the velocity of a moving particle. Occasionally there is no graph and an expression for the derivative or function is given.

Here is the 2021 AB 4 / BC 4 stem:

The first thing students should do when they see $G\left( x \right)=\int_{0}^{x}{{f\left( t \right)}}dt$ is to write prominently on their answer page ${G}'\left( x \right)=f\left( x \right)$ and $\displaystyle {G}''\left( x \right)={f}'\left( t \right)$. While they may understand and use this, they must say it.

Part (a): Students were asked for the open intervals where the graph is concave up and to give a reason for their answer. (Asking for an open interval is to remove any concern about the endpoints being included or excluded, a place where textbooks differ. See Going Up.)

Discussion and ideas for adapting this question:

• Using this or similar graphs go through each of these with your class until the answers and reasons become automatic. There are quite a few other things that may be asked here based on the derivative.
• Where is the function increasing?
• Decreasing?
• Concave down, concave up?
• Where are the local extreme values?
• What are the local extreme values?
• Where are the absolute extreme values?
• What are the absolute extreme values?
• There are also integration questions that may be asked, such as finding the value of the functions at various points, such as G(1) = 2 found by using the areas of the regions. Also, questions about the local extreme values and the absolute extreme value including their values. These questions are answered by finding the areas of the regions enclosed by the derivative’s graph and the x-axis. Parts (b) and (c) do some of this.
• Choose different graphs, including one that has the derivative’s extreme value on the x­-axis. Ask what happens there.

Part (b): A new function is defined as the product of G(x) and f(x) and its derivative is to be found at a certain value of x. To use the product rule students must calculate the value of G(x) by using the area between f(x) and the x-­axis and the value of ${f}'\left( x \right)$ by reading the slope of f(x) from the graph.

Discussion and ideas for adapting this question:

• This is really practice using the product rule. Adapt the problem by making up functions using the quotient rule, the chain rule etc. Any combination of $\displaystyle G,{G}',{G}'',f,{f}',\text{ or }{f}''$ may be used. Before assigning your own problem, check that all the values can be found from the given graph.
• Different values of x may be used.

Part (c): Students are asked to find a limit. The approach is to use L’Hospital’s Rule.

Discussion and ideas for adapting this question:

• To use L’Hospital’s Rule, students must first show clearly on their paper that the limit of the numerator and denominator are both zero or +/- infinity. Saying the limit is equal to 0/0 is considered bad mathematics and will not earn this point. Each limit should be shown separately on the paper, before applying L’Hospital’s Rule.
• Variations include a limit where L’Hospital’s Rule does not apply. The limit is found by substituting the values from the graph.
• Another variation is to use a different expression where L’Hospital’s Rule applies, but still needs values read from the graph.

Part (d): The question asked to find the average rate of change (slope between the endpoints) on an interval and then determine if the Mean Value Theorem guarantees a place where $\displaystyle {G}'$ equals this value. Students also must justify their answer.

Discussion and ideas for adapting this question:

• To justify their answer students must check that the hypotheses of the MVT are met and say so in their answer.
• Adapt by using a different interval where the MVT applies.
• Adapt by using an interval where the MVT does not apply and (1) the conclusion is still true, or (b) where the conclusion is false.

Next week 2021 AB 5.

I would be happy to hear your ideas for other ways to use this questions. Please use the reply box below to share your ideas.

# Applications of Integration – Unit 8

I haven’t missed Unit 7! This unit seems to fit more logically after the opening unit on integration (Unit 6). The Course and Exam Description (CED) places Unit 7 Differential Equations before Unit 8 probably because the previous unit ended with techniques of antidifferentiation. My guess is that many teachers will teach Unit 8: Applications of Integration immediately after Unit 6 and before Unit 7: Differential Equations. The order is up to you. Unit 7 will post next Tuesday.

Unit 8 includes some standard problems solvable by integration (CED – 2019 p. 143 – 161). These topics account for about 10 – 15% of questions on the AB exam and 6 – 9% of the BC questions.

### Topics 8.1 – 8.3 Average Value and Accumulation

Topic 8.1 Finding the Average Value of a Function on an Interval Be sure to distinguish between average value of a function on an interval, average rate of change on an interval and the mean value

Topic 8.2 Connecting Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of Functions using Integrals Distinguish between displacement (= integral of velocity) and total distance traveled (= integral of speed)

Topic 8. 3 Using Accumulation Functions and Definite Integrals in Applied Contexts The integral of a rate of change equals the net amount of change. A really big idea and one that is tested on all the exams. So, if you are asked for an amount, look around for a rate to integrate.

### Topics 8.4 – 8.6 Area

Topic 8.4 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of x

Topic 8.5 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of y

Topic 8.6 Finding the Area Between Curves That Intersect at More Than Two Points Use two or more integrals or integrate the absolute value of the difference of the two functions. The latter is especially useful when do the computation of a graphing calculator.

### Topics 8.7 – 8.12 Volume

Topic 8.7 Volumes with Cross Sections: Squares and Rectangles

Topic 8.8 Volumes with Cross Sections: Triangles and Semicircles

Topic 8.9 Volume with Disk Method: Revolving around the x– or y-Axis Volumes of revolution are volumes with circular cross sections, so this continues the previous two topics.

Topic 8.10 Volume with Disk Method: Revolving Around Other Axes

Topic 8.11 Volume with Washer Method: Revolving Around the x– or y-Axis See Subtract the Hole from the Whole for an easier way to remember how to do these problems.

Topic 8.12 Volume with Washer Method: Revolving Around Other Axes. See Subtract the Hole from the Whole for an easier way to remember how to do these problems.

### Topic 8.13  Arc Length BC Only

Topic 8.13 The Arc Length of a Smooth, Planar Curve and Distance Traveled  BC ONLY

### Timing

The suggested time for Unit 8 is  19 – 20 classes for AB and 13 – 14 for BC of 40 – 50-minute class periods, this includes time for testing etc.

### Average Value and Accumulation

Half-full or Half-empty

Accumulation: Need an Amount?

AP Accumulation Questions

Good Question 7 – 2009 AB 3 Accumulation, explain the meaning of an integral in context, unit analysis

Good Question 8 – or Not Unit analysis

Graphing with Accumulation 1 Seeing increasing and decreasing through integration

Graphing with Accumulation 2 Seeing concavity through integration

### Area

Area Between Curves

Under is a Long Way Down  Avoiding “negative area.”

Math vs. the “Real World”  Improper integrals  BC Topic

### Volume

Volumes of Solids with Regular Cross-sections

Volumes of Revolution

Why You Never Need Cylindrical Shells

Visualizing Solid Figures 1

Visualizing Solid Figures 2

Visualizing Solid Figures 3

Visualizing Solid Figures 4

Visualizing Solid Figures 5

Painting a Point

### Other Applications of Integrals

Density Functions have been tested in the past, but are not specifically listed on the CED then or now.

Who’d a Thunk It? Some integration problems suitable for graphing calculator solution

Here are links to the full list of posts discussing the ten units in the 2019 Course and Exam Description.

2019 CED – Unit 1: Limits and Continuity

2019 CED – Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties.

2019 CED – Unit 3: Differentiation: Composite , Implicit, and Inverse Functions

2019 CED – Unit 4 Contextual Applications of the Derivative  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 5 Analytical Applications of Differentiation  Consider teaching Unit 5 before Unit 4

2019 – CED Unit 6 Integration and Accumulation of Change

2019 – CED Unit 7 Differential Equations  Consider teaching after Unit 8

2019 – CED Unit 8 Applications of Integration   Consider teaching after Unit 6, before Unit 7

2019 – CED Unit 9 Parametric Equations, Polar Coordinates, and Vector-Values Functions

2019 CED Unit 10 Infinite Sequences and Series